REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
The literature encompasses not only several studies validating the academic benefits that can be gained from sports participation, but also includes empirical evidences that participation in sports can be detrimental to academic achievement, particularly for Adventist University of the Philippines Academy students. This is followed by related literature on the positive and negative factors affecting the academic achievement of the students, as well as the manner in which sports participation addresses these factors.
Related Literature
Conduct Grade
Conduct grades are determined by the students’ behavior. I will review the ways students can get an “A” in conduct as well as what actions can negatively impact conduct grades. Students must understand that they will get an “F” in conduct if they repeatedly violate infractions (Apprenez Avec Madame Hardy, n.d.). Conduct grades are used to communicate clearly to both students and their parent(s)/guardian(s) the teacher’s evaluation of a student’s behavior and citizenship development. These grades are independent of academic and effort grades. Conduct grades must be consistent with the student’s overall behavior in class and should not be based on a single criterion (Doctor Charter School, n.d.)
Mathematics
Mathematics is a science, like physics or astronomy. Constitutes a body of established facts, achieved by a reliable method, verified by practice, and agreed on by a consensus of qualified experts. But its subject matter is ideas and concepts, which exist only in the shared consciousness of human beings. (Hersh, 2006)
Math is incredibly important to a person’s life because we cannot deny the fact that mathematics is being used in every aspect of life. Clearly, mathematics is powerful and incredibly useful to a person’s everyday life and without understanding mathematics one can encounter significant problems in life. Learning math is good for our brains and children who know math are able to recruit certain brain regions more reliably, and have greater gray matter volume in those regions, than those who perform more poorly in math (Dr. Tanya Evans, 2015). Math helps us tell time; a recent study indicated that 4 out of 5 children living in Oklahoma City cannot read the hands on an analog clock to tell time. Knowing math and particularly, fractions, can help us better tell time. And it also helps us with our finances and it even makes us better cooks. Math helps us to have better problem-solving skills, it helps us to think analytically and have better reasoning abilities. And most specially math is used in practically every career in some way and it is all around us and helps us understand the world better. (PI DAY, 2018)
It is generally agreed that mathematics is a critical skill for all, including to those who have not achieved a grade C at GCSE by age 16’ (Hodgen & Marks, 2013, p.1). Further, an argument is put forward that in today’s world of ‘rapid change’ (ACME, 2011a, p. 1), particularly in terms of technological change, the demand for mathematical skills is increasing (Burghes, 2011; Norris,2012; Vorderman, Porkess, Budd, Dunnes], & Rahman-hart,2011).
Math ability is unnecessary in the modern age because we have access to computers and calculators that can perform more complicated math functions for us. Computers cannot do all the work for people, if people do not fundamentally understand the math we need them to perform. If anything, math abilities are more important than ever with the rise of big data. Companies are relying more and more on data to guide their decisions, and employees who can analyze and interpret data in ways that inspire actionable decisions are extremely valuable. Even employees who may not work directly with data are at a disadvantage if they cannot understand what the data is conveying on a basic level (Schacht, 2016).
Mathematical process is an extremely critical, chronically overlooked ability. Math skills are associated with broader cognitive abilities, and they are reflective of a candidate’s critical thinking and problem-solving ability. A lot of the math learned in school does not end up being all that relevant for the majority, but basic numeracy is unavoidable in everyday life, and those who do avoid it are at a fundamental disadvantage. And for employers seeking critical thinkers and problem solvers, aptitude tests that measure math skills are a great way to gain insight into candidates’ abilities (Boaler,2017).
Ferguson tells Teacher several themes emerged. ‘[The main findings were] that: young children can recall with clarity mathematical experiences from their lives either at home or at school, even when the event is not recent; young children view mathematics as many things (measurement, numbers, materials, shape, etcetera); many young children view mathematics as a social experience working beside or with others (children, parents and teachers); and, mathematics is something the children were doing – manipulating materials, talking, writing, using calculators. That is, the children were active learners and math’s wasn’t shown as something ‘done to them’ or that they were passive.’ She says the results also showed children really treasure the times they get to talk to their teacher one on one.
Behavior of Athletes
Athletes are expected to act as role models to their audience specially the elite athletes who are often in the public eye, in order to please the fans and audience they must act in proper manner in order to get the favour of the watcher and the media. The behaviour of the athletes reflects on everything they do on a daily basis, including their conduct, actions, mannerisms, body language, words spoken, and sporting skills displayed. A good sport conduct includes; shaking hands with opponents after a game, helping an opponent up after a play, showing concern for injured opponents, accepting all decisions of referees, encouraging less skilled teammates and it also includes an excellent effort by opponents. (Jennifer J. Waldron, PhD, 2014)
No matter whether it is external or internal, negative psychological factors can lead to mental blocks, causing breaks in focus and preparation, poor performance and injuries to the athlete. It can produce physical disruptions such as muscle tightening, shaking and increased perspiration. To avoid the negative effects stated, it is best for coaches and athletes to focus their efforts on tactics such as goal setting, routines, visualization and confidence. Goal setting is a successful tactic to improve athletic psychology, but it shall be realistic. Goals must be designed small that are achievable in the short term. Time goals set by athletes, such as swimmers and runners, must be minimal and not over the top. It is important not only to make achievable goals, but also understand how a goal is going to be achieved. Knowing how to visualize to success is equally important with setting goals for athletes. Athletes who can visualize themselves having success will be successful. Athletes must fight the internal negative side that is bringing down the confidence and self-esteem to fail their goals battle. To combat this negative voice, visualization of success and practice self-talk is the answer. Visualization is more important to individual sports such as ice-skating and gymnastics than for team sports. Practicing visualization is a form of mediation. It is critical for the athlete to be in a state of relaxation. This is harder for some athletes whose minds are constantly running. It may help the individual to listen to soothing music and cover his or her eyes. At first, the athlete may need a form of guided meditation, but it does not take long for successful visualization to happen alone (Liele, 2015).
Although Children receive benefits from participation in competitive sports, they often experience negative feelings such as low self-esteem, aggressive behavior, and excessive anxiety. These symptoms can develop from receiving negative messages (both verbal and nonverbal) or aggressive behavior from the “sideline coaches” – the parents. Young athletes’ self-perceptions and motivations are significantly related to the quantity and quality of feedback they receive for their success and errors. (Kraus, 2014)
Sports Involvement
Sport education is a curriculum and instruction model designed to provide authentic, educationally rich sport experiences for girls and boys in the context of school physical education (Siedentop, 1994). Sport education has an important curricular implication; that is, it cannot be fitted easily into a short unit, multi activity program. Sport education also has important instructional implications; that is, its purposes are best achieved through combinations of direct instructions, cooperative small-group, work, and peer teaching, rather than by total reliance on directive, drill oriented teaching.
The importance of sports in the life of a young student is invaluable and goes much further than the basic answer that “it keeps kids off the streets.” It does in fact keep kids off the streets, but it also instills lessons that are essential in the life of a student athlete. Sports play a pivotal role in the makeup of a young athlete, especially in the middle school to high school years where student athletes are much more mature and mentally developed. Where else can a young, impressionable youth learn values like discipline, responsibility, self-confidence, sacrifice, and accountability (Banning, 2018).
The practice of physical and sporting activities (PSA) throughout life is now known to increase healthy life expectancy, to delay the onset of dependency, and to be an effective complementary treatment for many disorders, particularly obesity and disability. The notion of a “sedentary death syndrome ” SeDS has been evoked on the other side of the Atlantic. Although the beneficial effects of PSA have long been known, statistical analyses have only recently confirmed at the group level what was often disputed at the individual level. Knowledge of the impacts of PSA on cellular, insular and metabolic functions has improved considerably. PSA is no longer seen simply as a leisure activity but is now considered necessary for a healthy body and mind. PSA also has considerable social, educational and integrative implications. Can any society ignore these evident health benefits with impunity? The aims of this article are 1) to provide a quick overview of the advantages of regular, measured and reasonable PSA, as well as the potential risks of excess; 2) to discuss the quantity of PSA providing the optimal balance between benefits and risks, and the means of achieving this balance; 3) to highlight the lack of enthusiasm for PSA among the French population, and to analyze its causes, and 4) to propose a new organization designed to help more of our fellow citizens to adopt PSA, in the interests of their health and well-being.
The Faculty of Sport and Exercise Medicine UK has made a guide on the role physical activity has in treating mental illness for health professionals, sports participants, schools, parents and careers. Physical activity can help prevent and manage mental health problems. A way to improve mental wellbeing and protect mental health is through involvement in physical activity. Physical activity has been shown to have a strong and positive influence on mental wellbeing and some mental illnesses Participation in regular physical activity can increase self-esteem and reduce stress and anxiety. Physical activity is a role to prevent mental health problems and increase the quality of life of those who practice it. It has been a practice in treating depression either as a standalone treatment or combined with medications. Evidence shows that adults who practice daily physical activity participation reduce 20-30% of their depression. With the same percentage of reduction, there has been a clear evidence that physical activity decreases the risk of cognitive adults and reduce the possibility of developing dementia in older adults. Physical activity can reduce depression and anxiety in children. It can increase the self-esteem and decrease depression and anxiety in children, also improve the cognitive performance. It is also necessary to consider mental health problems that might be more common in those who play sport professionally, not recreationally. Since the role of sport might bring pressure rather than benefit to the participant’s mental health. Athletes may be more susceptible to particular presentations: eating disorders alcohol use and suicide. Small groups among professional sports show increased occurrence of mental ill health such as retired elite athlete, experiencing performance failure those who have suffered injury and other major negative life events. Athletes tend not to seek support for mental health problems because of the stigma surrounding it such as perception of help seeking as a sign of weakness (Faculty of Sport and Exercise Medicine UK, 2019.).
Despite the relevance of cognitive and non-cognitive skills for professional success, their formation is not yet fully understood. This study fills part of this gap by analyzing the effect of popular extra-curricular activities such as sports development on the student’s behavior and their academic achievement level particularly in mathematics the effects may be partially explained by increased physical activities replacing passive leisure activities (Felfe, Lechner, & Steinmayr, 2011)
The different kinds of sports: this are some of the major sport that is popular at the society first is the football, this sport is very popular competitive sport. The object of this game is to score more points than the other team. According to Meriam Webster, it is an American game played between two teams on a usually rectangular field having goalposts or goals at each end. One of the most popular sport also is the basketball. It is an indoor court game between two teams of usually five players each who score by shooting the inflated ball through the ring. And some other outdoor sports that is called baseball that is played with a bat and a small hard ball. And it is played by calculating the points by how many players have crossed home plate. Softball and soccer are also the same sports that is played outdoors and played by its own mechanics.
(Johnson, I. 2008-2019)
Gender
Although most scholars recognize that boys and men generally exhibit greater sports interest than girls and women, some dispute this or argue that differences in observed sports behavior do not represent differences in underlying interest (Brake, 2010). In this section, we demonstrate that there is unambiguous evidence for a substantial sex difference in sports participation and spectatorship. We also review several lines of evidence indicating that these patterns reflect a sex difference in underlying sports interest, not merely differences in opportunities for engagement. Various sports opportunities were organized for girls since the passage of Title IX in 1972. In the 1972-73 season, the first seven national championships were offered by AIAW, then during the 1980-81 season, it increased to 39 championships in 17 different sports with 6,000 women’s teams and 960 member institutions. The number of female participants continues to rise as variables such as opportunity for involvement, valuing of sports as part of total development and overall fitness for girls and women has increased. Among the many forms of sexism in sports, perhaps the most pervasive and devastating is the lack of equal opportunities for girls to compete in programs similar to those offered for boys. According to Blinde, women’s sport has been shaped by men. Girls are the one who need to adjust and adapt within the established men’s model. As the boys continues to receive tremendous amount of opportunities toward sports resulted in the loss of women’s sport culture to merging female sports model into established male sports model led to the reduction of female sport administrative leadership and female coaches (Wikipedia, 2018).
Related Studies
Conduct Grade
Current knowledge about the relationship between sports and academic performance is based upon a long-term body of research and writing. Much of the inspiration for this work came from James Coleman’s classic The Adolescent Society (1961) which posited the powerful impact. of athletics in general and athletes in particular on American high school culture. Coleman’s work gave rise to numerous academic studies of the relationship between athletic participation and education for individual students and student-athletes (Rehberg & Schaefer 2012; Schafer & Spady 2015; Hanks & Eckland 2017; Otto & Duane 2015; Landers & Landers 2014). The basic result of this work was to establish a strong and positive correlation between high school sports participation and academic achievement. Students who participate in high school sports tend, on average, to perform better academically than their non-athletic peers. Although these studies are considered beyond relevance, they support a trend that has existed since the beginning of research concerning student athletes and grades. Despite these early studies, the original concern of student athletes not performing well in the class room remained (Whitley, 2015). This section will explore newer research regarding student athletes and grades.
Mathematics
The study, Predicting Relationships between Mathematics Anxiety, Mathematics Teaching Anxiety, Self-efficacy Beliefs towards Mathematics and Mathematics Teaching aimed to investigate the relationships between self-efficacy beliefs toward mathematics, mathematics anxiety and self-efficacy beliefs toward mathematics teaching, mathematics teaching anxiety variables and testing the relationships between these variables with structural equation model. According to the findings obtained from the model, the most important independent variable affecting mathematics teaching anxiety is mathematics anxiety. Another finding of this research is that the most important independent variable affecting mathematics anxiety is self-efficacy beliefs towards mathematics. These findings indicate that as the self-efficacy beliefs toward mathematics teaching increases, mathematics teaching anxiety decreases. Peker (2015) also revealed that there is a significant negative relationship between pre-service primary school teachers’ mathematics teaching anxiety and their self-efficacy beliefs toward mathematics teaching (Unlu, 2017).
In the study Effective Factors Increasing the Students’ Interest in Mathematics in the Opinion of Mathematic Teachers of Zahedan, the researchers conducted the study to identify factors and conditions that motivated and encouraged students towards the math class and the factors that made this class an attractive and lovely one. Conducting a research related to mathematics, its application in daily life and other courses and studying the history of mathematics were categorized as important factors that would increase the students’ interest in mathematics. Based on the findings the researchers gathered it can be argued that studying the history of mathematics as well as conducting research related to mathematics, its application in daily life and other courses are highly effective in increasing the students’ interest in math. Therefore, the study concluded that the interest in learning is the product of a collection of factors including personality and ability of the student, the characteristics of assignments, incentives and other environmental factors (Khayati, 2014).
A study conducted in Philippine Normal University, North Luzon, Isabela was designed to identify the factors that affect the achievements of students in Mathematics and to determine the relationship between the students’ achievements and individual, instructional, classroom management and evaluation factors. The proponents end up with the following findings: 1) achievements of students in Math Courses is poor; 2)students perform low in both subjects; 3) mathematics achievements are highly correlated to individual and instructional factors and moderately correlated to classroom management and evaluation factors; 4) individual factor and instructional factor greatly affect achievements in fundamental math; 6)instructional factor is the number one predictor of achievement in contemporary math; 7) instructional factor is the factor that affects most the achievements of students in Mathematics (Andaya, 2014).
Behavior of Athletes
In physical education, accretion of discernment into student’s beliefs is a captious source for understanding their attitudes and their interests and involvement toward the curriculum. National reports document youths’ inactive and unhealthy lifestyles reaffirm the absence for addition to physical activity among adolescents. Accretion levels of sedentary behaviors among youth mean a captious need for physical education programs to embrace curriculum that is inclusive of all students and that increases their interest and motivation levels for physical activity participation (Banville ,2016).
Chasing deadlines and running late to lectures are the most strenuous forms of exercise many students engage in. Even the thought of balancing a sporting career with a degree is enough to make some of us sweat. But evidence suggests that juggling the two can benefit both academic and sporting performance. Sport last year found that having “dual careers” provides motivation for training and preparation, stimulating athletes intellectually and relieving stress.
Students who balance sports and study are better in managing their emotional state and are said to have more perseverance. having an outlet of interest other than sport helps athletes “to put their training and performance into perspective, allowing them to deal more effectively with the challenges of sport, including setbacks and injury”. Self-discipline lends itself well to academic focus, helping to banish procrastination. “The mind wanders when doing essays, but if you develop a focus and know you have to use your time efficiently then it’s a very transferable skill,” says Baddeley. (Gil N. 2014)
Sports can be a fun and engaging way for children and youth to learn some important lessons about life. Studies suggest that participation in sports can be very beneficial, fostering responsible social behaviors, greater academic success, and an appreciation of personal health and fitness. Participating on a team also can give children or youth an important sense of belonging.
Sports Involvement
A study conducted in selected universities of Philippines examined the relationship between academic achievement and sport participation. The results of the study revealed that there was a significant relationship between sports participation and academic success of the student-athletes. Sports participation improved athletes’ perceptions on academic excellence, mental processes and becoming more logical and patient. Sports involvement have positive influences such as improvement on memory, students’ concentration in education, increased learning efficiency, attained higher degree of academic achievement, and obtained higher school grades, thus sports involvement not just develop the physical health and capability of the students but also improve their attitudes towards positive behaviors, self-discipline, and mental alertness (Montecalbo-Ignacio, 2017).
Children are more operative than adults and the subsistence of an age-related descent in physical activity during and after puberty has been well documented by a number of studies. The study shows that adult physical activity comes out to be more influenced by physical activity in childhood and in adolescence than by the going social and environmental factors. Children who partake in constant physical activity often enjoy lots of positive experiences such as fun, enjoyment, success and peer relationships (Yang, 2016).
Several studies have shown that students who participate in athletic activities perform better in school than those who do not, it is not clear whether this association is a result of positive academic spill overs, or due to the influence of unobservable. It is been said that high school sports participation increases motivation and teaches teamwork and self-discipline. Basketball, soccer and volleyball are just some of the sports the help the students build their social being and confidence. It also helps them build their academic performance through developing their confidence on making friends with sports that they are in to. (Rees D & Sabia J. 2019)
The future will hold on to more opportunities for academic, in addition to athletic, megahit for those student athletes who may be customary use by this system. Instructors must continue imposing the environment made by big time intercollegiate athletic agenda for ways to enhance the result for student athletes who inscribe through it. One of the latest reports states that student athletes finished school at higher rates than students in general population (Gaston,2017).
Whether children, teenagers, or adults – studies have consistently demonstrated that physically active people remain healthier and are able to perform better on tests of cerebral or intellectual ability. Some studies even indicate that the results are sharp and immediate – even a quick 5-minute walk can yield immediate results. Most studies show that the more exercise one gets, the higher one’s mental faculties and cerebral performance.
Gender
The study about Societal inequalities amplify gender gaps in math. even though gender gaps in average math performance are now close to zero in developed countries, women remained underrepresented among math high performers This gender gap contributes to the underrepresentation of women in math and science in higher education and to their subsequent worse position in the labor market With the roles of gender on performance gaps have been debated for more than a century, the research in 1990s and 2000s propose a cultural origin, relating gender gaps in math to measures of countries’ gender inequality. However, with the recent studies having shown that this relation is weak, in this day there is no clearly identified relationship between countries’ socioeconomic or cultural environment and the gender gap in math. The researchers relate below gender gaps in math to societal inequalities that are not directly related to gender and find a strong and robust relationship and provide tests suggesting that it is causal: Countries that are generally more egalitarian, or that have institutions more conductive to equality, have a lower gender performance gap in math, suggesting that this gap is partly shaped by more general societal inequalities (Breda, 2018).
The study, Gender Differences in Mathematics Achievement and Retention Scores: A Case of Problem-Based Learning Method was conducted to asses’ gender differences in mathematics achievements and retention using Problem-Based Learning. It is clear from the study that students’ achievement and retention in algebra are not dependent on gender but based on function of method. Both sexes are capable of competing and collaborating in classroom activities. The findings revealed that the both sexed did not significantly differ in achievement and retention scores (Ajai, 2015).
A study conducted in selected universities of Philippines examined the relationship between academic achievement and sport participation. The study tackles the comparison of general weighted average of student-athletes in terms of general. The general weighted average of male and female student-athletes was said that consistently changing and becoming better every semester. The following are the findings regarding the comparison of general weighted average of the students-athletes (1) learning efficiency increased with sports participation achievement and through sports participation student-athletes attained higher school grades more successfully, indicating that participation in sports and physical activities did not harm students academically. However, in comparison of the general weighted average of the male and female student-athletes who participated in this study, (2) it showed that female athletes got consistent higher grades from AY 2014-2016 respectively than their male counterpart (Montecalbo-Ignacio, 2017).
Grade Level
The children Data Bank discussed the declining participation of students in school athletics. The trends in athletics participation were said to vary by grade level. Among eight-graders, the participation remained steady between 1991 and 2001, fluctuating between 67 and 70 percent. Participation fell from 69 to 62 percent between 2001 and 2007, increased to 66 percent in 2012, and decreased a bit in 2013, to 64 percent. Tenth-grade athletic participation during this time was fairly steady, ranging from 60 to 64 percent. Among twelfth-graders, participation decreased slightly between 1991 and 2003, from 56 to 53 percent, increasing to 59 percent in 2013.
The gender gap in school sports participation generally declined among eight-, tenth-, and twelfth-graders, and remained steady among eighth- and tenth-graders. These statistics presented that there is relationship between the grade level of students to the declination of sports participation towards the students (Child Trends Data Bank).
Theoretical Framework
There are currently three theoretical perspectives regarding the relationship between participation in athletics and academic achievement: that participation diverts attention from academic goals or has a positive effect on academic achievement. The first, Zero-Sum Model Theory, is derived from the work of Coleman (1961), who concluded that adolescent society emphasizes peer acceptance and an indifferent approach to academic achievement. The second is the Developmental Theory, a reaction to Coleman which instead offered that participation aids in the overall development of athletes, including academically. It is this second perspective that informs the hypothesis of this study that athletic participation leads to increased academic achievement. The third one is Involvement theory, derived from original idea of Astin (1984) described involvement as “simply, the amount of physical and psychological energy that the student devotes to the academic experience” (p. 297). As is evident from analysis of the theory, the academic experience no longer refers solely to the classroom and paper learning associated with higher education, but the full life of a student in higher education.
Zero-Sum Model Theory
Holland and Andre (1987) described Coleman’s theory to mean that an emphasis on extracurricular activities subvert the academic goals of education. This became known as the Zero-Sum Model. Coleman’s (1961) position was that a commitment to academic or athletic pursuits necessitate a reduction in commitment to the other two. Because sports are both athletic and social in nature, participation is said to detract from academics. Although this is an important theory, there is a lot of evidence against it (Marsh, 1988). Participation in athletics has often been found to facilitate academic outcomes rather than detract from them (Marsh, 1988).
Developmental Theory
This study is based on the Developmental Theory, formulated in 1987 by Alyce Holland and Thomas Andre which offered that Sports Participation aids in the overall development of athletes including, academically and social behavior. It is this perspective that informs the hypothesis of this study that sports involvement leads to increase academic achievement and improved behavior. Holland and Andre viewed athletes as experiences that enhance the total development of students. From the developmental perspective, athletics may facilitate not only non-academic goals but also academic goals (Marsh,1988). Participation enhances self-concept and self- efficacy, which in turn has positive effects on other outcomes, like academic performance (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1990).
This study will be conducted on the developmental perspective. Participation in sports activates may lead to experiences, values, attitudes, and self-perception that enhance academic performance or there may be increased interest in school, including academics, generated through participation in sports. Athletes may be motivated to perform at higher academic levels in order to remain eligible, and athletic success may lead to a heightened sense of self-worth that spills over into academic performance. As coaches, teachers, and parents take an interest in athletes, including their behavior and classroom performance, athletic participation may lead to membership in elite peer groups and an orientation toward academic success, and athletes may have the hope or expectation of participating in athletics in the collegiate level (Snyder and Spreitzer, 1990)
Student Involvement Theory
Unlike other theories of student development in higher education, involvement
theory emphasizes the student’s behavior rather than emotional, motivational, or
intellectual ideas (Astin, 1984). Those abstract ideas through the theory of involvement
developed by Astin (1984) are defined in a more measurable framework of time devoted
to tasks (quantitative analysis) and the content covered over that time (qualitative). Because students can only devote certain amounts of time to any given activity, involvement in one requires absence of another. Despite potential issues regarding the management of time and resources, studies show that involvement increases self-efficacy and retention (Emerick, 2005).
Students choose to be involved in programs, academics at varying levels of intensity, athletics, organizations and a variety of other campus experiences. Each activity demands time from the student, and the policies and procedures on a campus affect which activities and to what extent students participate (Astin, 1984).
Conceptual Paradigm
Figure 1. Paradigm of the Study
Participating in sport can improve the quality life of individuals and communicates, promote social inclusion, improve health, counter anti-social behavior, and widen horizons. In particular, in the context of local community planning, this document will demonstrate the extent to which sport may contribute to: Improve in people’s physical and mental health and well-being; the promotion and enhancement of education and life-long learning; the promotion of active citizenship; Programs aimed at combating crime and anti-social behavior; and Economic development (Woodruff & Schallert, 2008)
Definition of Terms
Academic achievement refers to the performance is the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their short or long-term educational goals.
Athletes refers to a person who is proficient in sports and other forms of physical exercise.
Behavior refers to the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially toward others.
Mathematics refers to the science of numbers and their operations interrelations, combinations, generalizations, and abstractions and of space configurations and their structure, measurement, transformations, and generalizations.
Physical activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure.
Sport refers to a competitive physical activity. Sport is generally recognized as activities based in physical athleticism or physical dexterity. Sports are usually governed by rules to ensure fair competition and consistent adjudication of the winner.
Sport involvement is conceptualized as a multifaceted construct representing the degree to which participation in a sport activity becomes a central component of a person’s life and provides both hedonic and symbolic value.
Student athlete means an individual who engages in, is eligible to engage in or may be eligible in the future to engage in any intercollegiate sport.
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Influence of Sports Involvement on their Behavior, Conduct, and Mathematics Grade 